1916-1962
NOT READY FOR PRIMETIME - JUST STARTED THIS CHAPTER
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When I started this website, the Collection was considerably smaller than it is now, and I know a hell of a lot more than I did then. If I could go back in time, I would have divided this time period into two separate sections. The 1949 publication of Aldo Leopold's A Sand County Almanac, one of the seminal works of the movement and the Collection, represented a culmination in the development of a more holistic and ecologically based "land ethic" and in retrospect would have been a logical breaking point. But given the nature of the platform upon which this website is hosted, the process of dividing the associated Catalogue is so daunting that I am unlikely to undertake it anytime soon, if ever. However, I am going to divide this EC History Chapter accordingly, both because I think it makes sense structurally and thematically, and in order to provide flexibility in case I do ever decide to divide them sometime in the future.
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The themes from the Overview chapter of this EC History section that are particularly relevant to this period are:
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20. Renewed, urgent focus on game protection and management.
21. The Great Depression - large scale efforts to remediate catastrophic environmental destruction, such as deforestation, topsoil erosion (Dust Bowl) and wetlands eradication, through massive land protection programs and remediation efforts by armies of CCC/WPA workers.
22. Public use/recreation vs. conservation/protection (biocentric management) in management of protected areas. Separate protection of wilderness areas. Widespread state-level protection efforts, particularly state parks.
23. The development of ecology as a science and framework for understanding human environmental impacts.
24. A Malthusian focus on the risks and effects of overpopulation on the environment.
25. Widespread recognition of impacts of non-visible pollutants in the air and water from pesticides, industrial activity, etc.
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Part One - Before A Sand Country Almanac - 1916-1948​​​
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If John Muir is the prophet of the EC movement, then Aldo Leopold and Rachel Carson respectively represent the movement's philosopher-king and queen. Leopold's career spanned the 1916-48 period and Carson's began during it, but she will be discussed in more detail in the second section of this chapter. During this period there were also warriors, none more militant or effective than Rosalie Edge, a woman who is little known today and who never wrote a book, but who is represented in the Collection through a number of pamphlets published by her mouthpiece, the Emergency Conservation Commission. More about her below.
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The statistics around the decline in wildlife populations through this period are staggering, and game protection and management is perhaps the key theme over the 30 years beginning 1916. While Theodore Roosevelt as president had launched the wildlife refuge system, and efforts to save the American bison from extinction were successful, nevertheless the primary focus of conservationists during the Progressive Era was on saving the forests. Certainly, William Temple Hornaday, George Bird Grinnell, C. Hart Merriam, Charles Sheldon and others discussed in the last chapter were strong advocates for wildlife conservation and continued that fight into the period covered in this chapter. However, the fact was that deforestation, with its impact on fresh water sources, game habitat and timber supplies; and the drive to protect incomparable environments such as Yosemite, the Grand Canyon and the Adirondacks from rapidly encroaching exploitation, dominated the decades around the turn of the century.
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Hornaday in particular is described by Brinkley as "the grand old man of the wildlife protection movement." (RH 346). His efforts continued into the 1930s, when he was well into his 80s. His mantle was picked up by Aldo Leopold around 1915 - Leopold was at the time US Forest Service agent who had graduated from Yale Forestry School, and he was tasked with driving the USFS's new game protection programs. Leopold essentially took the reins from Hornaday, with whom he corresponded for years, and his work shaped the massive New Deal wildlife conservation programs of FDR, Ding Darling, John Clark Salyer, Ira Gabrielson and others described below. Leopold was one of the handful of people I consider to be the most important in conservation history, and he gets his own section further along in this chapter.
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Meanwhile, neatly opening the time period covered by this chapter, the National Parks Service was formed in 1916 as a separate agency within the Interior Department to oversee all of the national parks, monuments and reservations then overseen directly by Interior. Later, in 1933, the national monuments and historic military sites overseen by the Forest Service and War Department were transferred by executive order to the NPS, creating for the first time a unified system of national parks.
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The creation of the NPS in 1916 was an important step in systematizing the protection and stewardship of the National Parks - a step taken at least partly in response to the damming of Hetch-Hetchy in the Yosemite NP area, a controversy discussed at length in the prior Chapter on John Muir. The other driver in the creation of the NPS was the lobbying by various folks, most notably Stephen Mather, who was serving as assistant secretary of the Interior before becoming the first head of the NPS. Franklin Lane, then head of Interior, also supported the creation of the NPS.
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Mather was a wealthy industrialist (he was in borax) who hired, and personally paid, Robert Sterling Yard to help him with the lobbying campaign - after formation, Yard became Director of Education for the NPS, working successfully with Mather to foster greater awareness of and appreciation for the natural beauty of the federal park system. As part of the lobbying campaign to support formation of the NPS, Yard produced a National Parks Portfolio (1916), an impressive and professional set of eight separate brochures, each describing a separate park or monument, plus an Introductory brochure containing pieces by both Mather and Lane. The set of brochures was (and is) housed in a custom slipcase and was distributed to legislators and influential leaders to promote the NPS idea - the Catalogue contains a lengthy description of this important and interesting work. Yard later published a book on the NPs, Our National Parks (1919), also contained in the Collection. More on Yard to come.
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Stephen Mather had some mental health issues and was forced to take an extended leave from the NPS, during which time Horace Albright stepped in to run the NPS - he also took over permanently from 1929-33. Albright was not only the second head of the NPS but also served at various times as superintendent of both Yellowstone and Yosemite NPs. Albright's account of his time with the NPS is recounted in his The Birth of the National Park Service: The Founding Years 1913-33 (published in 1985 but Catalogued in the 1916-62 section). The copy in the Collection is inscribed by Albright to Marion Sulzberger Heiskill, herself an important environmental advocate nationally and particularly in the New York metropolitan area. (The Collection's copy of Hans Huth's early historic overview of the conservation movement, Nature and the American (1957 - Reference section) is inscribed by Huth to Albright, who Huth credits in the Acknowledgements as his most critical primary source).
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When Albright initially took over the NPS when Mather took an extended medical leave, Yard left the NPS and formed the National Parks Association - with Mather's financial backing - creating essentially a private parks advocacy and oversight body. Over time, Yard became increasingly certain the wilderness protection was perhaps the critical role of federal land management generally, a position which often put him at odds with the very promotional Mather in particular. Eventually, Yard moved away from the NPA and became a pioneer in the nascent wilderness preservation movement, as discussed further on.
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Mary Rolfe's Our National Parks (1927), with an Intro by Mather, is written for a young adult audience and follows a family on a cross-country trip with a visit to each NP, with a detailed description of each. Rolfe was a trained scientist, and the contents of the book reflect that training. The inscribed copy in the Collection is the first of two books in the series.
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Books in the Collection for the period between the end of WWI in 1918 and the beginning of the Great Depression in 1929 include a considerable number from authors discussed in the prior EC History Chapter. These include Florence Merriam Bailey, Frank Chapman, Mary Austin, Gifford Pinchot, Enos Mills, Teddy Roosevelt, Henry Fairfield Osborn, Anna Botsford Comstock and Edward Forbush, among others.
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That being said, that period before the Depression also saw both the emergence of important new authors and the publication of environmental classics from new writers. It also saw the launch of the careers of some of the most important figures in conservation history, including Arthur Carhart, Aldo Leopold and Bob Marshall. These three men, along with Robert Sterling Yard, were the progenitors of the wilderness movement in America. More on them later.
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William Beebe published three books during the 1920s that are contained in the Collection. Beebe was one of the first "professional" naturalists (vs. the "gentleman" naturalists of the 17th and 18th centuries) and, notably, was a very popular and widely known figure in his day. I have written extensively about Beebe in the Catalogue and, more expansively, in a Nov 2023 blog post. Either or both is worth a diversion now, I shan't rehash it here.
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Henry Beston's 1928 classic The Outermost House is one of those books that I learned about in the course of this journey, and which I read and loved. The Outermost House is widely considered to be one of the great works of literary nature writing, and Beston is esteemed as one of the progenitors of the modern environmental movement. The book, which has never been out of print, is seen as one of the primary motivating factors leading to the establishment of the Cape Cod National Seashore by JFK in 1961. The book was frequently quoted in the report of the Interior Department representatives sent to assess the area in the 1950s as a potential National Park.
Beston spent his life as a writer and college lecturer, but during WWI he volunteered as an ambulance driver for the French Army and later became a press representative for the U.S. Navy. Shaken by his experiences during the war, he spent a year living in a cabin which he built in a remote area on the Cape Cod dunes, near Eastham, about one-third of the way north from Chatham to Provincetown, where he wrote the book. Beston donated the cabin to the National Audubon Society in 1959 and in 1964 it became a National Literary Landmark. Sadly, it was swept away during a winter hurricane in 1978.
"The Outermost House is considered to be one of the seminal works of today's environmental movement and 'is one of the reasons that the Cape Cod National Seashore exists today,' in the words of the governor of Massachusetts, Endicott Peabody, in 1964. The governor's words were echoed by representatives of the National Park Service. Rachel Carson said it was the only book that ever influenced her writing." [From the website of The Henry Beston Society].
Beston writes in The Outermost House: "Nature is a part of our humanity, and without some awareness and experience of that divine mystery man ceases to be man. When the Pleiades and the wind in the grass are no longer a part of the human spirit, a part of very flesh and bone, man becomes, as it were, a kind of cosmic outlaw, having neither the completeness and integrity of the animal nor the birthright of a true humanity."
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The Collection also contains a first edition copy of Beston's 1942 book on The St. Lawrence River for the popular Rivers of Americas series, a series which we will encounter again when we get to Marjory Stoneman Douglas, below.​
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Rockwell Kent's Wilderness: A Journal of Quiet Adventure in Alaska (1920) feels to me like a singular, somewhat unusual addition to the Collection. Kent himself is not thought of as an important conservationist, but he is a monumental figure in the world of art and popular culture, the latter in part because of his socialism and support of Soviet Russia. His art was certainly strongly influenced by the natural world. Wilderness is an account of an extended period Kent spent with his son on an Alaskan island and is reckoned to be a classic about both the state of Alaska and the state of mind wilderness engenders. I am happy to have not one but three copies in the Collection, all signed or inscribed copies (see Catalogue for details).
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George Washington Carver is another unusual and singular (albeit most worthy) individual represented in the Collection. Carver was an agricultural scientist who developed and promoted alternative crops to cotton and methods to prevent soil depletion, through the agricultural extension program at Tuskegee which he founded. He headed the modern organic movement in the southern agricultural system, identifying nitrogen-rich crops that regenerated soil depleted by cotton farming. He developed and promoted uses for those crops, particularly peanuts and sweet potatoes. He also worked to pioneer organic fertilizers and natural fodder for farm animals. And he supported woodland preservation in order to help improve the quality of topsoil. Notably, his is the first contribution in the Collection by a person of color.
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Carver was born at the tail end of slavery - his father died before he was born and he, his sister and mother were kidnapped by raiders when he was a baby - only he was recovered by his owner, who raised him and his brother. He pursued his own education (he was not allowed to attend school where he was raised). Ultimately, he got his bachelor's and master's degrees at Iowa State, where he was the first black student and later the first black faculty member. Booker T. Washington lured him to Tuskegee, where he taught for 47 years. He became among the best-known Black Americans of his day, one of a handful of Americans to be made a member of the Royal Society of Arts in England, consulted by presidents including Teddy Roosevelt, Coolidge and FDR.
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Ever since I read a "Landmark" series biography of GWC as a boy he has been a particular hero. Part of what is unusual about Carver's contribution to the Collection is that it consists of two hand-written letters to a protege, along with some other ephemera.
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Charles Sheldon is considered the "father of Denali National Park," having used his personal influence and that of the Boone & Crockett Club to move the 1917 bill approving the park through Congress. He hand-delivered the bill to President Wilson for signing. Sheldon, who died in 1928, is represented in the Collection with his The Wilderness of Denali (1930). He was considered to be the premier big game hunter of his time and spent extensive time in the area. The book was edited by our friend C. Hart Merriam, brother of Florence Bailey. Sheldon's legacy is also noted the EC History chapter on the Progressive Era.
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Parenthetically, it's amazing how many NPs had "fathers" from this era. Sheldon-Denali, Mills-Rocky Mountain, Grinnell-Glacier, Muir-Yosemite, Steel-Crater Lake, etc. I'm happy to say that Minerva Hamilton Hoyt (about whom more below despite the fact she wrote no books as best I can tell) is considered the "mother of Joshua Tree NP."
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Notwithstanding that the period 1916-1948 saw two world wars, perhaps the single most important factor from an environmental conservation perspective was the Great Depression and the FDR administration's New Deal in response. The president with arguably the greatest conservation legacy to date (2024) not named Theodore Roosevelt is...Franklin Roosevelt. This notwithstanding FDR's propensity for dams, roads and, many would argue, nukes. In a way, FDR seems to me to be the president best defined as a working conservationist, particularly in the way he actively stewarded his Hyde Park property on the Hudson River. His physical disabilities perhaps made him sensitive to the quality of his surroundings in a way others were not.
Interestingly, FDR's long presidential tenure is perhaps the one period in which the EC Movement was not really defined, shaped and driven by the literature - consequently, the Collection is light on environmental writings from that time. The fact that we were in a Depression, when discretionary income was generally constrained, certainly had to impact the volume of publications. Many of the key players of the period were senior government officials dealing with extraordinary economic, environmental and, ultimately, geopolitical issues. They probably did not have a lot of spare time to write. (Not everyone can be Winston Churchill!). Some the most important government officials and advisors of the time did write about the period later in life. The Collection contains a number of these accounts.
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Going into the Great Depression, and despite the efforts of all of those good people discussed in prior Chapters, the US as a series of ecosystems was in deep trouble, heading for disaster. The effects of a mostly laissez-faire governing philosophy resulted in massive depletion of fresh water, forest cover, wildlife stocks, and when the dust bowl hit, tillable soil. Even TR, as much as he was great at preserving and protecting government land, did comparatively little to control such issues on privately owned property.
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However, the advent of the Depression and the resulting unemployment, along with the election of FDR as president, allowed an enlightened federal government to deploy armies of manpower (mostly not womanpower) to work at remediating the effects of the environmental degradation, and to build and improve facilities across protected lands such as national and state parks. The devastation wrought upon the agricultural community allowed and compelled the government to both work with property owners or, in many cases, to acquire major tracts of denuded, marginal private farmland, for remediation. And FDR continued his cousin's passion for creating National Parks, Monuments and Wildlife Refuges, while also driving the creation of many State Parks, which was also not a focus of TR.
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SUMMARY OF FDR CONSERVATION ACCOMPLISHMENTS
-The Reorganization Act of 1933 placed all national monuments, Civil War battlefields, and most national cemeteries, and public facilities ​ in Washington DC under the jurisdiction of the NPS, affecting 64 major sites nationwide. Previously, most had been administered by either the War Department or the USDA.
-140 National Wildlife Refuges were established.
-276 National Forests were created and/or expanded.
-Established eight NPs - Everglades, Great Smoky Mountains, Big Bend, Shenendoah, Olympic, Isle Royale, Monmouth Cave and King's Canyon
-First National Seashore - Cape Hatteras in 1937.
-"FDR had done more to protect America's coastlines, marine sanctuaries, and barrier islands than all of his White House predecessors combined." (RH 388)
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FDR's most important conservation advisor and the man who implemented much of the New Deal was his Interior Secretary, Harold Ickes. A Republican from Illinois, Ickes was combative and incorruptible - he was known as "Honest Harold". In addition to serving as Interior Secretary for the entire length of FDR's administration (and thus serving the longest tenure in that seat to date), he also directed the Public Works Administration.
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While it is the PWA's massive projects for which Ickes is perhaps best remembered (think the Grand Coulee Dam, the Key West Highway, the Lincoln Tunnel and the Triborough Bridge), he was at FDR's side......
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"Ickes, who was amazed at Roosevelt's 'wide information' on the natural world, had clearly become the president's indispensable man on everything related to public lands and conservation of natural resources." (RH 320)
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Ickes was "the most powerful secretary of the interior in American history...." (RH 393).
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[Interesting sidenote about Ickes. He stayed on in Truman's cabinet after FDR's death. In 1946, Truman nominated former Democratic Party national treasurer Edwin W. Pauley to be Secretary of the Navy. Ickes testified during Pauley's Senate confirmation hearings that Pauley had once suggested to Ickes that $300k in campaign funds could be raised if Ickes would drop his fight for title to oil-rich offshore lands. Truman fired Ickes. Pauley declined the nomination. Why is this interesting? The Collection's copy of Robert Jay Wilder's Listening to the Sea (1998) is inscribed to Pauley's son Stephen. As described in the Catalogue entry for that book, Edwin Pauley did end up taking some important steps in favor of conservation, a legacy continued by his son.]
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Govt Pubs (Weaver, Goldman, McAfee, Rachel Carson)​​
The idea of wilderness protection as an important role for the federal government, separate from its other stewardship activities, is a critical thread in the development of modern environmental conservation movement.
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FDR:​
Grew up part of Eastern conservation elite - family friends and acquaintances included Merriam, HFO, Grinnell and Chapman.
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Uncle Franklin Delano important conservation advisor. p193
FDR as NYS Governor: "FDR's modus operandi was to encourage rural and small-town citizens to measure tree diameters, learn soil types, protect drinking-water sources, and help wildlife prosper. He would prove a genius at making conservation a positive exercise of self-worth and skill, not simply a warning that abstinence and caution were needed...he claimed that scientific forestry, public hydropower, land rehabilitation, and pollution control were ways to truly honor the 'gift of God.'" (Brinkley RH p. 122).
Hugh H. Bennett - "father of soil conservation" - encouraged by Pinchot. Inspired FDR and creation of soil experiment stations during Hoover years. GW Carver described these stations as "one of the best things to happen to America's rural poor." [HHB book ordered]
Idea for CCC: "But in the main, FDR's conservation corps came from an amalgam of influences, the most important being his forestry experiments on his own land..., his fondness for German forests, the TERA [] work with Henry Morgenthau, his erudite conversations with Pinchot, his activism with the Boy Scouts of America, and his relationship with British silverculturist Richard St. Barbe Baker (with whom FDR had dined in Albany before the [DNC] in Chicago." (Brinkley RH 151)​
Hoover's derision toward FDR's CCC idea drove Republicans Pinchot, George Norris of NE and Robert M. LaFollette Jr. of WI to support FDR.
Bob Marshall RH 159-61 [Copeland Report]
Ickes was also a Republican turned FDR supporter. SEE RH 163+ for more on ICKES
Re CCC: "What made the CCC more than just a dazzling work-relief program was the professional expertise...brought to land reclamation. Skilled young [professionals] learned about conservation in a tangible, hands-on way. If not for the Great Depression, these workers would have found themselves engaged in upwardly mobile jobs. But by a twist of fate, as many of their diaries and letters home make clear, [they] were indoctrinated in New Deal land stewardship principles. Later in life, after World War II, many became environmental warriors, challenging developers who polluted aquifers, and unregulated factories that befouled the air." (RH 172).​
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State Parks: "Encouraged by the availability of CCC labor and funds, eleven states acquired their first [state] parks because of Roosevelt's commitment to the cause. In a masterstroke, Roosevelt, by having the National Park Service oversee the development of the state park movement, ushered in one of the most successful programs in U.S. environmental history." (RH pp 217-8)
"In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt...established America's first federal bird reservation in Florida. At that time, there were 120 million waterfowl in North America. By 1935...that number had shrunk to 30 million." [!] (RH p. 226).
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"Senator Henry Hawes of MI "goaded Congress throughout the 1930s into prioritizing the restoration of essential wildfowl nesting areas in the North, and vast marsh areas along the age-old flyways and wintering resorts in the South.... [H]e offered Roosevelt counsel on ways to rescue North American wildlife from the vicious ravages of the Dust Bowl and from overhunting. For the first time since [TR], two powerful politicians - FDR and Hawes, had adopted nonvoting North American wildlife as a constituency." (RH pp. 225-6).
"Roosevelt wanted to withdraw these lands generally classified as submarginal; areas that, under cultivation, had never produced crops comparable in value to the fish, game, furbearers, songbirds, and insectivorous birds that inhabited them before they were wholly or partially destroyed by rashly attempted agricultural operations and drainage projects." (RH p. 228)
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Ducks Unlimited/Thomas H. Beck report pp 228-9
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Notwithstanding Okefenokee and other Georgia forest successes, "much of what he accomplished in the name of applied science in the Deep South was, in hindsight, environmental folly." Ecosystems could not survive "the hyperindustrialization offered by the Corps of Engineers...fertile southern lands were segregated from the Mississippi River by New Deal land improvers." (RH 234)
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Roosevelt considered his longtime friend [Robert Sterling Yard] the most effective publicist for protecting America's parklands." (RH 238)
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Two important woman who didn't write - Rosalie Edge and Minerva Hamilton Hoyt (211). (Also Jean Sherwood Harper - Okefinokee)
Important men: John Clark Sayler and Ernest Oberholtzer
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Ding Darling - Repub who became head of US Bio Survey at FDR's request. Designed first duck stamp. By the end of 1935, the Biological Survey had acquired over 1.5 million acres, largely through the efforts of Darling and John Clark Salyer, a biologist who Darling had met while Salyer worked at Iowa Fish and Game and hired at the Bio Survey. Salyer is known as the "Father of the National Wildlife Refuge System," serving as head of the Division of Wildlife Refuges in 1961 and building the acreage from 1.5 million to nearly 29 million acres when he retired.
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​"Throughout 1935, Darling paid keen attention to Aldo Leopold's writings.... Both Darling and Leopold understood that no longer could American conservation be only about 'monumentalism', that is saving the largest mountains, sequoias, or rock formations. A new caretaking ethic, for all land...had to be the ecological basis for the future. To Roosevelt the reclamation of rural lands was the heart and soul of the environmental New Deal." (RH p 310).
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"After three years in office, Roosevelt had done more for wildlife conservation than all of his White House predecessors, including Theodore Roosevelt, establishing forty-five new wildlife refuges." (RH 297)
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​In 1804, there were around two million bighorn sheep in North America - by the 1930s that number had dropped to about 700 animals. "Two of the Roosevelt family's favorite wildlife conservationists - William Temple Hornaday and Charles Sheldon - had each written convincingly about the need to save the desert bighorn sheep." (RH 327)
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Texas State Park lands expanded from 800 acres to 60,000 acres during FDR's presidency, driven by the CCC (RH 371).
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First National Seashore Cape Hatteras 1937.
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[Willard Van Name. Was curator at AMNH who backed Rosalie Edge and in fact financed her acquisition of the Hawk Mountain Reserve. He wrote pamphlet under the ECC aegis advocating protection of the Olympic National Forest as an NP following a visit there. It was being extensively logged. (RH 404). With ECC lobbying support, Ickes forced congress to create the NP. Key was Ickes' recruitment of Bob Marshall to testify in favor of the NP, notwithstanding he worked for USFS, running department of recreation and lands. Over this period there was much unfriendly competition between USFS and NPS over wilderness protection efforts etc.
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​Aldo Leopold
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As mentioned at the outset, Aldo Leopold might be described as the philosopher-king of the environmental conservation movement. Leopold grew up in Iowa on the banks of the Mississippi River as an avid hunter, one whose father practiced a voluntary form of responsible sportsmanship, adhering to self-imposed bag limits at a time when official regulations and limitations did not exist. Leopold absorbed these lessons, and built upon them throughout his career.
Leopold is best known for his book A Sand County Almanac (1949), which remains a classic touchstone of the environmental movement today. The book was nearly finished when Leopold died suddenly while helping a neighbor fight a fire on his land at age 61 - it was published posthumously. The copy in the Collection is a first edition inscribed by his daughter Estella to neighbors and family friends "the Rogers." Included with the book is a copy of an email from Estella confirming that the inscription is by her, not her mom.
The culminating essay in A Sand County Almanac is entitled "The Land Ethic," and it represents a capstone to Leopold's development of an environmental ethic. In short, the land is part of the community, and the community is of the land and a mutuality of respect and stewardship is necessary for the community to perpetuate and prosper. As discussed in the Catalogue in connection with the copy of Leopold's 1947 address entitled "The Ecological Conscience," in writing "The Land Ethic" Leopold drew principally from four prior pieces, of which "The Ecological Conscience" was the last. Leopold's most frequently quoted and heavily analyzed passage first appeared in a slightly different form in the 1947 address. See the Catalogue for more [ESTABLISH LINK].
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Leopold graduated from the Yale School of Forestry in 1909 and went to work with the US Forestry Service in its District 3, in the southwestern US. He worked there for 15 years on various capacities. Over the course of his time there, he became sequentially interested in a series of critical issues which defined the conservation movement of the time, including fire control issues, soil erosion caused by agricultural grazing and other human-driven activities, game management, and wilderness conservation. He made critical theoretical and practical contributions in all of these areas.
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See Brooks (243-248) for good discussion of Osborn and Vogt.
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